Modernity and Shia Islam

The project of modernity that began in the West has profoundly impacted Islam, particularly Shia Islam. Modernization has transformed Shia political ideology and the role of the Shia clergy. Shia scholars, such as Dr. Ali Shariati, Murtaza Mutahhari, Ruhollah Khomeini, Mirza Mahdi al-Shirazi, and Baqir Al-Sadr, have not only redefined Shia political ideology and the role of the clergy but have also staunchly defended Western influences while providing an indigenous socio-political and economic understanding of Islam. 

Their efforts contributed significantly to strengthening Shia political ideology and the institution of the Shia clergy, leading to various institutional and ideological developments. For instance, Ali Shariati exposed the threats of Westernization and emphasized the need for a revival of cultural, spiritual, and religious independence within Shia Islam. Similarly, Mutahhari provided a viable alternative to the growing influence of Marxism and socialist interpretations of Islam. 

Baqir Al-Sadr emerged as a prominent scholar in Islamic economics, impacting many subsequent scholars with his comparative approach to capitalism, socialism, and the Islamic economic system. Likewise, Khomeini implemented the Shia doctrine of political Islam in Iran, drawing upon the teachings of revitalizing scholars.

The principles of modernity highlighted the importance of economic, cultural, historical, and scientific awareness. Dr. Ali Shariati noted that the modernization project in the West had a significant impact on the already enlightened generations of Asia and Africa. These generations have come into direct contact with the political, cultural, spiritual, and ideological influences of Europe.

Contrary to some modern doctrines, the core of Shia political ideology includes the concepts of the Imamate and occultation. Imams are considered the vicegerents of God and the successors to the Prophet Muhammad, and true believers are expected to obey the Imam. The belief in occultation asserts that the twelfth Imam, known as the Mahdi, is alive and will return in the future to establish a just Islamic order (Kalantari, 2019). The political vision of Islam presented by figures such as Khomeini, Sadr, and Mutahhari views Islam not merely as a religion but as a political ideology that can be utilized to organize and mobilize society (Martin, 75).

In Shia political ideology, the leadership of the clergy is considered essential during the occultation of the Imam. Highly qualified individuals within Shia doctrine act as the general deputies of the Imam, taking on the responsibility of leading the Shia community until the Imam's reappearance. According to tradition regarding the necessity of relying on the ulama (clergy) in the Imam's absence, it is stated: “In the case of new events, you should seek guidance from those who convey our traditions, because they are my proof to you, just as I am God's proof to them” (Al-Shaykh, 484).

During the rise of modernization, many prominent Shia scholars made efforts to counter opposing forces. Baqir al-Sadr, for instance, played a crucial role in promoting political Islam as an alternative to both capitalism and Marxism. He criticized the foundations of capitalism and communism, arguing that the Islamic system is the only path to human salvation, happiness, and socio-economic development. 

Sadr’s interpretation of Quranic verse 44 from chapter five contributed to the establishment of a purely Shia institutional framework, which legitimized the Islamic state and formalized the role of the clergy within it. His philosophical perspective laid the groundwork for an Islamic state primarily based on Shia political ideology. In this Islamic state, the clergy would serve as the head of the community, continuing the legacy of the Prophet and the Shia Imams.

According to Sadr's interpretation of Islamic fiqh, several principles for an Islamic state can be derived: Sovereignty rests solely with God, deputyship follows the guidance of the Awaited Imam, and leadership of the nation should be based on the principle of consultation (shura) to ensure the right to self-determination (Mallat, 62-70).

To replace Western economic models with Islamic ones, he explained the principles of Islamic economics. This framework has three main features: private-public ownership, regulated economic freedom, and social justice. He expressed his opposition to the concept of the nation-state, arguing that it has secular origins and is therefore unable to fulfill the aspirations of Muslims. As an alternative, he proposed the establishment of an Islamic state. In support of this vision, he not only endorsed the Islamic Revolution in Iran but also worked to develop new political functions for the marja'iyya (Jurdi et al., 2014).

During the clerical movement in the latter half of the twentieth century, religious leaders united against communism, which ultimately strengthened the position of the Shia clergy. The establishment of the Ulama Assembly in Najaf in 1958 aimed to protect the interests of the mujtahids in both Najaf and Karbala. This assembly also fostered alliances between the mujtahids and Iraqi groups that opposed communism and President Qasim's regime. In a similar vein, Khomeini advocated for the active involvement of the Ulama in political and governmental affairs. He urged his students in Najaf, “Teach people the truth of Islam so that the younger generation does not believe that scholars are confined to the corners of Najaf and Qum and that they should separate religion from politics” (Mallat, 60).

Sayyid Musa’s initiatives in Lebanon aimed to weaken communism, oppose leftist movements, and enhance the political functions of clerics. These efforts represent significant milestones in strengthening Shi’a political ideology and the authority of the Shi’a clergy. His work contributed to the establishment of the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council, which enabled the Shia clergy to play a crucial role in reconciling the Shia community with the state. During his time in Lebanon, he focused on improving the integrity of legal procedures at the Jafari courts, initiated charitable projects, and actively sought to resolve communal conflicts in the country (Jurdi et al., 2014).

Ali Shariati's work on reviving and modifying Islamic values and culture has significantly contributed to the development of Shia ideology in response to the intense pressures of Westernization and modernization. He expressed that “an individual who is aware of their history possesses a personality that can choose and shape their future. Someone without a past can't have a future. Those who lack a history start from scratch, and individuals who are unfamiliar with their own culture are like primitive people.”

Murtaza Mutahhari played a crucial role in presenting Islam as an alternative to Marxism and promoting a form of socialist Islam. He successfully won the hearts and minds of young people. To foster the growth of Shia thought and to critique active political involvement, he established the Husainiyya-yi Irshad Institute. This institution was significant in disseminating knowledge and understanding of Islam in light of modern perspectives. Mutahhari aimed to offer an alternative Islamic ideology to redirect the attention of middle-class youth away from Western ideologies, particularly Marxism and Shariati’s version of Islamic socialism (Martin, 98).

Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim's fatwa against communist demands for land reforms played a significant role in rejecting communist tendencies in Iraq. He believed that these reforms violated the Islamic principle of private property. Similarly, the mujtahid Mirza Mahdi al-Shirazi, in 1960, defended the growing influence of communism in Iraq. He issued several fatwas declaring communists to be blasphemous and prohibited any business transactions with them as un-Islamic and illegal. The opposition to communism was rooted in concerns about its economic reforms, the privatization of religion, and the limited role of sharia.