Modernity and Shi'ism

The project of modernity that started in the West has profoundly impacted Islam in general and Shia in particular. Modernization transformed the Shia political ideology and the role of the Shia clergy. Like Western philosophers, who advocated new socio-political, economic, and religious doctrines, Shia scholars, such as Dr. Ali Shariati, Murtaza Mutahhari, Ruhollah Khomeini, Mirza Mahdi al-Shirazi, and Baqir Al-Sadr had not only redefined Shi’a political ideology and role of Shia clergy but also staunchly defended western influence and provided an indigenous socio-political and economic understanding of Islam. Their efforts paved the way for strengthening Shi’a political ideology and Shi’a clergy and institutional and ideological developments. Ali Shariati, for instance, exposed the scheme of Westernization and emphasized the revival of cultural, spiritual, and religious independence in Shiism. Similarly, Mutahhari succeeded in providing an alternative to the growing influence of Marxism and socialist Islam. Sadr is one of the prominent scholars of Islamic economics who influenced many later scholars with his comparative approach to explaining Capitalism, Socialism, and the Islamic economic system. Likewise, Khomeini implemented the Shia doctrine of political Islam in Iran based on the teachings of revivalist scholars.

The tenets of modernity emphasized economic, cultural, historical, and technical-scientific awareness. According to Dr. Ali Shariati, the modernization project in the West had significantly impacted already enlightened generations of Asia and Africa who have come into direct contact with the political, cultural, spiritual, and ideological resources of Europe.

Contrary to doctrines that surfaced in modernization, the tenet of Shia political ideology encompasses the Imamate and the occultation. Imams are the vicegerents of God and successors of the Prophet Muhammad. A true believer obeys the imam. The occultation belief holds that the twelfth Imam (Mahdi) is alive and will return in the future and establish a just Islamic order (Kalantari, 2019). Political Islam envisioned by Khomeini, Sadr, and Mutahhari is an Islam that is not just a religion but a political ideology utilized to organize and mobilize society (Martin, 75).

In the political ideology of Shia, the clergy’s socio-political leadership is considered paramount during the time of Imam occultation. Highly qualified personalities in Shia doctrine are general deputies of the imam and remain responsible for leading the Shia community until the reappearance of the imam. According to the tradition related to the necessity of reliance on ulama (clergy) during the absence of the imam, “In the case of new events, you should turn for guidance to those who relate our traditions, because they are my proof to you, as I am God’s proof to them (Al-Shaykh, 484).”

During the growing influence of modernization, many prominent Shia scholars undertook efforts to counter the influence of opposing forces. For instance, Baqir al-Sadr played a vital role in promoting political Islam as a substitute for Capitalism and Marxism. He denounced the foundations of capitalism and communism and emphasized that the Islamic system is the only alternative for human salvation, happiness, and socio-economic development. Sadr's interpretation of Quranic verse 44 of chapter five led to the constitution of a purely Shia institutional scheme and found the legitimation of the Islamic state as well as an institutionalization of the clergy's position in it. His philosophical perspective also provided the foundation of an Islamic state, which mainly relied on Shia political ideology. In that Islamic state, the clergy will act as the head of the community and sustain the role of the Prophet and the Shia Imams. According to Sadr’s interpretation of Islamic fiqh, the principles he deduced for an Islamic state are: Sovereignty rests only with God, deputyship following the saying of the Awaited Imam, and finally, the leadership of the nation based on the concept of consultation (shura) for the right of self-determination (Mallat, 62-70).

To replace Western economic models with Islamic ones, he explained Islamic economics. Islamic economics possesses three main features such as private-public ownership, monitored economic freedom, and social justice. He expressed objection to the concept of the nation-state. He believed the nation-state has secular roots and, thus, is incapable of fulfilling Muslims' aspirations. He proposed an Islamic state as an alternative to the nation-state, and he, therefore, not only supported the Islamic Revolution in Iran but also worked to develop new political functions for the marjaiyya (Jurdi et al, 2014).

In the clerical movement of the second half of the twentieth century, the clergy united against communism and strengthened the Shia clergy's position. The formation of the Ulama Assembly in Najaf in 1958 protected the interests of the mujtahids in Najaf and Karbala. It also cultivated alliances between mujtahids and Iraqi groups who opposed communism and President Qasim. Similarly, Khumaini advocated for the role of the Ulama to intervene directly in all political and governmental matters. He said to his students in Najaf, “Teach people the truth of Islam so that the young generation does not think that the people of learning have been confined to the corners of Najaf and Qum and that they separate religion from politics (Mallat, 60).”

Sayyid Musa’s initiatives in Lebanon to weaken communists, oppose leftists, and empower clerics’ political functions are milestones towards strengthening the Shi’a political ideology and authority of the Shi’a clergy. His efforts led to the establishment of the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council. This council allowed the Shia clergy to play and demonstrate a vital role in reconciling the Shia and the state. While in Lebanon, he tried to improve the integrity of the legal procedures at the Jafari courts, started charitable projects, and enthusiastically tried to resolve communal conflicts in the country (Jurdi et al., 2014).

Ali Shariati's work on the revival and modification of Islamic values and culture has contributed significantly to the development of Shia ideology in the wake of the immense pressure of Westernization and modernization. He stated, 'An individual who feeds on his history possesses a personality that is capable of choosing and shaping his tomorrow. It is impossible for an individual who has no past to have a future. Whoever has no past begins from zero, and whoever is not familiar with his own culture is a primitive man.'

Murtaza Mutahhari played a vital role in projecting Islam as an alternative to Marxism and socialist Islam. He succeeded in winning the hearts and minds of the young. He established the Husainiyya-yi Irshad Institute as a center for the growth of Shia ideas and denunciation of active political involvement. This institution played a significant role in disseminating and understanding Islam in the wake of the modern worldview. Mutahhari sought to provide an alternative ideology of Islam to divert the attention of middle-class young away from Western ideologies, especially Marxism and Shariati’s Islamic socialism (Martin, 98).

Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim's issued fatwa against communist demands for land reforms was a leading factor in rejecting communist tendencies in Iraq. He was of the view that these reforms were a violation of the Islamic foundation of private property. Similarly, the mujtahid Mirza Mahdi al-Shirazi in 1960 defended the growing influence of communism in Iraq. He wrote several fatwas declaring communists as blasphemous and prohibiting any business transaction with the communists as un-Islamic and illegal. The opposition to communism was based on the communist economic reform, privatization of religion, and the limited role of sharia.